Sources

The law, guidance and publications the reference library rests on.

Every entry lists its sources at the foot of the page. They are gathered here by practice area, entry by entry.

The entries rely on several kinds of document: laws and regulations, guidance published by the authorities that apply them, court decisions, professional codes of ethics, and the rules of art fairs. Artist records point to the artist’s own website or to the gallery that represents the artist.

A lawyer, a notary or an adviser can see at a glance which texts each entry rests on, and can open the text itself before relying on an answer. Entries are grouped by practice area, then artists, then the pages about the practice itself.

01/ 07

/research/foundations-and-legacy

Dubai fair to Europe

European Union: Regulation (EU) 2019/880 of 17 April 2019 on the introduction and the import of cultural goods, arts. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 and 16, and the Annex, Parts A, B and C. Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/1079 of 24 June 2021, arts. 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 11, 12 and 25. Regulation (EU) No 952/2013 laying down the Union Customs Code, arts. 70, 203, 250 and 251. Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2015/2446, art. 234, as amended by Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2018/1063. Directive 2006/112/EC, art. 94 and Annex III point (26), as amended by Council Directive (EU) 2022/542, art. 1. Annex I to Regulation (EEC) No 2658/87, in the edition made by Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2025/1926 of 22 September 2025, OJ L, 2025/1926, 31.10.2025, Chapter 97 and General rules concerning duties, B.1.
France: Code général des impôts, art. 278-0 bis, opening words and division I; art. 278-0 B, I; art. 292; art. 293 A.
Dubai: Dubai Customs, Service Guide, version 9: the Submit Customs Declaration service, the questions on temporary admission and on clearing cargo, Appendix (B) Services’ Fees, and Appendix (F) Restricting Authorities.
United Arab Emirates: Cabinet Decision No. 52 of 2017, the Executive Regulation of Federal Decree-Law No. 8 of 2017 on Value Added Tax, art. 30, as amended by Cabinet Decision No. 100 of 2024, in the consolidated English text published by the Ministry of Finance.

Painting into the UAE

Gulf Cooperation Council: Common Customs Law of the GCC States, Rules of Implementation and Explanatory Notes, January 2003, published by the Secretariat General: Law arts. 9 to 18, 25 to 29, 61, 62, 98 and 103, and Rules of Implementation, Value of Goods for Customs Purposes, art. (1), and Exemption of Personal Effects and Gifts Accompanying the Passengers, arts. (19) to (21).
United Arab Emirates, federal: Federal Authority for Identity, Citizenship, Customs and Port Security, Customs Union for GCC States. Ministry of Finance, Value Added Tax (VAT), and The Executive Regulation of the Federal Decree-Law No. 8 of 2017 on Value Added Tax, Cabinet Decision No. 52 of 2017 with the amendments made by Cabinet Decisions No. 46 of 2020, 24 of 2021, 88 of 2021, 99 of 2022, 100 of 2024 and 100 of 2025, arts. 1, 47, 48, 50 and 51.
Dubai: Dubai Customs: Frequently Asked Questions; Integrated Customs Tariff; Customs Duty Exemptions; Clearance of Personal Effects; and Customs Policies published by the Policies and Procedures Department, containing Customs Policy DCP (8) of 30 January 2006 and Customs Policy DCP (21) of 23 December 2008.
Abu Dhabi: Abu Dhabi Customs, About Abu Dhabi Customs.

Acceptance in lieu

Inheritance Tax Act 1984 (1984 c. 51), s. 230(1)
Inheritance Tax Act 1984, s. 230(2), (3), (4), (5), (6), (7)
HMRC, Guidance on capital taxation and the national heritage, last updated 23 August 2024; HMRC Capital Gains Manual, CG73340, updated 6 September 2026
HMRC, Reforming the Cultural Gift Scheme, published 13 July 2026
Inheritance Tax Act 1984, s. 32(4)(b)
GOV.UK, Pay your Inheritance Tax bill: By transferring national heritage property

Blockage discount: valuing a large holding of one artist

Inheritance Tax Act 1984, s. 160
26 U.S.C. §§ 6166, 6161; Treas. Reg. § 20.6161-1
Smith: 57 T.C. 650
O’Keeffe: T.C. Memo 1992-210
Warhol: 629 N.Y.S.2d 621
Elkins: 767 F.3d 443

Conditional exemption

Inheritance Tax Act 1984 (1984 c. 51), ss. 30(1), 30(2), 30(3BA)
Inheritance Tax Act 1984, s. 31(1)(a) to (d), s. 31(2), s. 31(4)
HMRC, Tax relief for national heritage assets, guidance, last updated 26 May 2022
Inheritance Tax Act 1984, s. 35A
Inheritance Tax Act 1984, ss. 32(2), 32(3), 33(1), 33(3)
Inheritance Tax Act 1984, s. 32(4), (5), (5AA); Sch. 3

Deaccession

ICOM Code of Ethics for Museums, paras. 2.13 and 2.15
ICOM Code of Ethics for Museums, paras. 2.12, 2.13, 2.14, 2.15, 2.16 and 2.17
Museums Association, Code of Ethics for Museums, 6th edition 2015, paras. 2.8, 2.9 and 2.10
American Alliance of Museums, Code of Ethics for Museums, adopted 1993, amended 2000
ICOM Code, opening page; Museums Association Code 2015, “Application of the code”; Accreditation Scheme for Museums and Galleries in the United Kingdom, Accreditation Standard, November 2018, requirement 4.2

Temporary admission

Regulation (EU) No 952/2013, art. 250(1); Convention on Temporary Admission, Istanbul, 26 June 1990, art. 1(a)
Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2015/2446, art. 234(1) to (4); Regulation (EU) No 952/2013, art. 250(2)
Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2015/2446, art. 234(4), read against Regulation (EU) No 952/2013, art. 250(2)(c)
Convention on Temporary Admission, Annex B.1, arts. 1, 3 and 4
Convention on Temporary Admission, Annex A, arts. 1(a), 1(b) and 2(1)
Regulation (EU) No 952/2013, arts. 250(1) and 215(1); Council Directive 2006/112/EC, art. 61

Lending to a museum

Acts: National Heritage Act 1980 (1980 c. 17), section 16.
Guidance: Department for Culture, Media and Sport, Government Indemnity Scheme, guidance published on GOV.UK.
Scheme guidelines: Government Indemnity Scheme: Guidelines for non-national institutions, Arts Council England, January 2016, Parts 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6 and Annex B.

Europe to the Gulf

European Union: Council Regulation (EC) No 116/2009 of 18 December 2008 on the export of cultural goods, arts. 1 to 10 and Annex I. Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 1081/2012 of 9 November 2012 for the purposes of Council Regulation (EC) No 116/2009, arts. 1 to 14. Both on EUR-Lex.
World Customs Organization: Convention on Temporary Admission (Istanbul, 26 June 1990), body of the Convention and Annexes A, B.1 and B.5, in the WCO published text. Position as regards signatures, ratifications and accessions, document PG0302Eb, Brussels, 25 November 2020.
International Chamber of Commerce: World Chambers Federation, ATA Carnet in your country, the published directory of national guaranteeing associations.
Gulf Cooperation Council: Common Customs Law of the GCC States, Rules of Implementation and Explanatory Notes, January 2003, published by the Secretariat General.
United Arab Emirates: Abu Dhabi Department of Finance, General Administration of Customs: Policy of Temporary Admission under ATA Carnet, policy number 03 / 2018, and Restricted and Banned Commodities. Dubai Customs: Exhibition Goods Requirement for Travellers.
Qatar: General Authority of Customs, Customs Facilities.

France to the UAE

France: Code du patrimoine, legislative part: arts. L111-1, L111-2, L111-3, L111-3-1, L111-4, L111-6, L111-7, L111-7-1, L111-7-2, L111-7-3 and L121-1. Regulatory part: arts. R111-1 to R111-9 and R111-19, and annexe 1 in the version resulting from décret n° 2020-1718 du 28 décembre 2020. Code général des impôts, arts. 278-0 bis, 278-0 B and 292, on Légifrance. Direction générale des douanes et droits indirects, Exporter des biens culturels. Service-Public, the register of procedures where silence produces consent.
European Union: Council Regulation (EC) No 116/2009 and Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 1081/2012, on EUR-Lex. Regulation (EU) 2019/880, arts. 1 and 3(1) and Annex Part A. Regulation (EU) No 952/2013, arts. 203 and 250. Annex I to Regulation (EEC) No 2658/87 in the edition made by Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2025/1926.
World Customs Organization: Convention on Temporary Admission of 26 June 1990 with Annexes A, B.1 and B.5. Position as regards signatures, ratifications and accessions, document PG0302Eb, 25 November 2020.
International Chamber of Commerce: World Chambers Federation, ATA Carnet in your country.
Gulf Cooperation Council: Common Customs Law of the GCC States with its Rules of Implementation and Explanatory Notes, January 2003.
United Arab Emirates: Federal Authority for Identity, Citizenship, Customs and Port Security, Customs Union for GCC States. Ministry of Finance, Value Added Tax (VAT) and the Executive Regulation made by Cabinet Decision No. 52 of 2017. Abu Dhabi Customs, Policy of Temporary Admission under ATA Carnet 03 / 2018. Dubai Customs, Frequently Asked Questions and Customs Policy DCP (8).

Export certificate in France

Code du patrimoine, legislative part: Arts. L111-1, L111-2, L111-3, L111-3-1, L111-4, L111-6, L111-7, L111-7-1, L111-7-2, L111-7-3, L114-1, L121-1, L121-2, L121-3, L121-4 and L123-1.
Code du patrimoine, regulatory part: Arts. R111-1, R111-2, R111-3, R111-4, R111-5, R111-6, R111-7, R111-8, R111-9, R111-11, R111-12 and R111-19, and annexe 1 to the regulatory part, in the version resulting from décret n° 2020-1718 du 28 décembre 2020 modifiant le régime de circulation des biens culturels.
European Union: Council Regulation (EC) No 116/2009 of 18 December 2008 on the export of cultural goods, arts. 1, 2 and 10(2) and Annex I. Regulation (EU) No 952/2013, arts. 201 and 250.
Guidance: Direction générale des douanes et droits indirects, Exporter des biens culturels. Ministère de la Culture, Circulation des biens culturels et Marché de l’art and Comment soumettre une demande d’autorisation d’exportation ?. Service-Public, Certificat d’exportation de biens culturels mentionnés à l’article L. 111-2 du code du patrimoine, register of procedures where silence produces consent, updated 11 May 2026.

Trust or foundation

United States, tax: Internal Revenue Code, 26 U.S.C. §§ 170(b)(1)(F), 501(c)(3), 508(e), 509(a), 4940(a), 4941, 4942, 4946, 6104.
United States, copyright: 17 U.S.C. §§ 106A, 201, 203, 302.
United States, agency guidance: Internal Revenue Service, Taxes on failure to distribute income: private foundations. Internal Revenue Service, Publication 526, Charitable Contributions.
United States, trust law: D.C. Code §§ 19-1304.02, 19-1304.05, 19-1308.13, being Uniform Trust Code §§ 402, 405 and 813 as enacted in the District of Columbia. The Uniform Trust Code is a model act and has legal force only in a jurisdiction that has enacted it. Uniform Law Commission, Enactment Map, 2000 Trust Code.
England and Wales: Charities Act 2011, ss. 1, 3, 4, 30, 144, 185. Charity Commission for England and Wales, How to set up a charity (CC21a). Charity Commission for England and Wales, Prepare a charity annual return.
United Kingdom: Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, ss. 12, 86, 93, 95. Inheritance Tax Act 1984, s. 23.

The estate’s first year

United States, statute: Internal Revenue Code, 26 U.S.C. §§ 1014, 2010(c), 2032, 6018(a)(1), 6035, 6075(a), 6151(a). 17 U.S.C. §§ 106A, 201, 203, 302.
United States, revenue procedure: Revenue Procedure 96-15, Internal Revenue Bulletin 1996-3, page 41. Treasury Regulation §§ 20.2031-6(b) and (d), as quoted within it.
United States, agency publications: Internal Revenue Service, Publication 5392 (Rev. 6-2024), the Art Advisory Panel of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, annual summary report for fiscal year 2023. Internal Revenue Service, Estate tax, filing thresholds. Internal Revenue Service, About Form 4768.
United Kingdom: Inheritance Tax Act 1984, ss. 216, 226, 227. Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, ss. 12, 86, 93, 95. HM Revenue and Customs, Pay your Inheritance Tax bill. HM Revenue and Customs, form IHT407, Household and personal goods, boxes 1 to 4 (edition HMRC 07/18).

When the collector dies

US statute: 26 U.S.C. §§ 170, 1014, 2010, 6035, 6075, 6151, 6161, 6166, 6662, 6695A. Treas. Reg. §§ 20.2031-1(b), 20.2031-6, 20.6161-1. 16 U.S.C. § 668.
US agencies: Revenue Procedure 96-15. Revenue Procedure 2025-32. IRS Publication 5392, Art Advisory Panel Annual Summary Report FY2023. Instructions for Forms 706 and 4768.
US cases: Estate of David Smith, 57 T.C. 650 (1972), aff’d 510 F.2d 479 (2d Cir. 1975). Estate of O’Keeffe, T.C. Memo 1992-210. Calder, 85 T.C. 713 (1985). In re Warhol Estate, 629 N.Y.S.2d 621 (Sur. Ct. 1994). Estate of Elkins, 767 F.3d 443 (5th Cir. 2014). Matter of Rothko, 43 N.Y.2d 305 (1977).
United Kingdom: Inheritance Tax Act 1984, ss. 30–35A, 160, 161, 230 and Schedules 1A and 3. Finance Act 2012, Schedule 14. HMRC, Guidance on capital taxation and the national heritage. Forms IHT400 and IHT407 and their notes. DCMS, Cultural Gifts Scheme: Scheme and Guidance.
Germany: Erbschaftsteuergesetz, § 13(1)(1) and § 13(1)(2).
Emirates: Federal Decree by Law No. 25 of 2025, Arts. 17, 18, 538–541. Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2022, Arts. 1, 4, 11, and Cabinet Resolution No. 122 of 2023. Federal Decree by Law No. 31 of 2023, Art. 3. Federal Decree by Law No. 50 of 2022, Art. 379. Cabinet Resolution No. 49 of 2023, Art. 2. DIFC Foundations Law, DIFC Law No. 3 of 2018, Arts. 13–16. ADGM Foundations Regulations 2017, s. 34.
Standards: AAM, Recommended Procedures for Providing Information to the Public. LACMA and Nelson-Atkins provenance conventions. ICOM, Object ID. Collections Trust, Spectrum 5.1.
Surveys: Deloitte, Art & Finance Report 2025, ninth edition. Art Basel and UBS, Survey of Global Collecting in 2025. Bank of America Private Bank, 2024 Study of Wealthy Americans, 1,007 respondents with at least $3 million in investable assets, fielded January to February 2024. Merrill Lynch and Age Wave, Leaving a Legacy, February 2019, more than 3,000 respondents. Christie’s and Sotheby’s published buyer’s premium schedules and conditions of business.

02/ 07

/research/luxury-and-brands

Droit de suite in France

Legislative part: Code de la propriété intellectuelle, article L122-8, in the version of 24 December 2016 resulting from Ordonnance n° 2016-1823 of 22 December 2016, article 2.
Regulatory part: Code de la propriété intellectuelle, articles R122-2, R122-3, R122-4, R122-5, R122-6, R122-7, R122-9, R122-10, R122-11 and R122-12, section 2 of the chapter on the rights of authors.
Union directive: Directive 2001/84/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 September 2001 on the resale right for the benefit of the author of an original work of art, Official Journal L 272, 13.10.2001, articles 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 9.
United Kingdom instruments: The Artist’s Resale Right Regulations 2006, S.I. 2006/346, and the Design Right, Artist’s Resale Right and Copyright (Amendment) Regulations 2023, S.I. 2023/1285, regulations 1, 3 and 4.

Export licence from Belgium

European Union: Council Regulation (EC) No 116/2009 of 18 December 2008 on the export of cultural goods, arts. 1 to 4 and Annex I. Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 1081/2012 of 9 November 2012, arts. 1 to 16. List of authorities empowered to issue export licences for cultural goods, published in accordance with Article 3(2) of Council Regulation (EC) No 116/2009, OJ C/2026/129 of 23 January 2026.
Flemish Community: Decreet van 24 januari 2003 houdende bescherming van het roerend cultureel erfgoed van uitzonderlijk belang, consolidated text on the Vlaamse Codex. Departement Cultuur, Jeugd en Media: Vergunning voor uitvoer van cultuurgoederen buiten de Europese Unie; Afgifte van EU-vergunningen voor de uitvoer van cultuurgoederen die zich in het Brusselse Hoofdstedelijke Gewest bevinden, 27 November 2025.
French Community: Décret du 17 mars 2022 portant protection du patrimoine culturel mobilier, as published in the Moniteur belge.
Brussels-Capital Region: Ordonnance du 25 avril 2019 relative au patrimoine culturel mobilier et immatériel de la Région de Bruxelles-Capitale, Moniteur belge of 17 May 2019. Direction du Patrimoine culturel, urban.brussels, on the Region’s competences in movable heritage.

Droit de suite

Code de la propriété intellectuelle, arts. L122-8 and R122-2 (Légifrance)
Code de la propriété intellectuelle, art. L122-8, third paragraph, and art. R122-9 (Légifrance)
Code de la propriété intellectuelle, arts. R122-5 and R122-6 (Légifrance)

Mécénat and parrainage

Code: Code général des impôts, article 238 bis. Code général des impôts, article 39, 1, 7°.
Terminology: Arrêté du 6 janvier 1989 relatif à la terminologie économique et financière, Annexe I, entries mécénat and parrainage.
Doctrine: BOI-BIC-RICI-20-30-20, Mécénat: détermination de la réduction d’impôt, 3 February 2021. BOI-BIC-RICI-20-30-10-20, Conditions relatives aux versements effectués par les entreprises, 8 January 2025. BOI-BIC-CHG-40-20-40, Autres charges externes, 30 August 2016.
Ministry: Ministère de la Culture, Mécénat. Ministère de la Culture, Parrainage.

French VAT on art

Code général des impôts: Art. 256 bis, I, 1°. Art. 269, 1, a. Art. 278. Art. 278-0 B, I. Art. 278-0 bis, opening words and para. I. Art. 293 A. Art. 296, 1°, a and b. Art. 297 A, I and II. Art. 297 C. Art. 297 D, I. Art. 297 E.
Annexe III: Art. 98 A, II, III and IV, which fixes the definitions of works of art, collectors’ items and antiques for the purposes of article 297 A.
Finance laws: Loi n° 2023-1322 du 29 décembre 2023 de finances pour 2024, art. 83. Loi n° 2025-127 du 14 février 2025 de finances pour 2025, art. 32. Loi n° 2026-103 du 19 février 2026, art. 81.
Ordonnance: Ordonnance n° 2025-1247 du 17 décembre 2025, art. 9, 27°, art. 15 and art. 49, repealing the provisions of article 278-0 bis with effect from 1 January 2027.
Published doctrine: BOI-TVA-SECT-90-40, TVA. Régimes sectoriels. Dispositions particulières applicables aux œuvres d’art, objets de collection ou d’antiquité, version of 14 May 2025. BOI-TVA-SECT-90-20-20, TVA. Régimes sectoriels. Biens d’occasion, œuvres d’art, objets de collection ou d’antiquité. Principes d’imposition. Biens livrés par des assujettis-revendeurs, version of 14 May 2025.
European law: Directive 2006/112/EC of 28 November 2006, arts. 312 to 325 and 333 to 341.

When a commission disappoints

Acts, United Kingdom: Consumer Rights Act 2015 (2015 c. 15), ss. 1, 2, 5, 11, 13, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 48, 49, 50, 54, 55 and 56. Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982 (1982 c. 29), ss. 1, 3, 4, 12 and 13.
Statutory instruments, United Kingdom: The Consumer Rights Act 2015 (Commencement No. 3, Transitional Provisions, Savings and Consequential Amendments) Order 2015, S.I. 2015/1630, arts. 3 and 6.
Codes, France: Code civil, arts. 1163, 1217, 1221, 1223, 1224, 1231-1, 1710, 1787, 1788, 1789 and 1790. Code de la propriété intellectuelle, art. L. 111-1.

Acts, United Kingdom: Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (1988 c. 48), ss. 9, 11, 12, 77, 78, 80, 85, 87, 90, 91 and 94, and Schedule 1, paras. 1 and 11. Copyright Act 1956 (1956 c. 74), s. 4(3), as enacted.
Statutory instruments, United Kingdom: The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (Commencement No. 1) Order 1989, S.I. 1989/816, art. 2.
Codes, France: Code de la propriété intellectuelle, arts. L. 111-1, L. 111-3, L. 113-1, L. 121-1, L. 122-4, L. 123-1, L. 131-1, L. 131-2 and L. 131-3.

03/ 07

/research/private-capital-and-collections

Acting in two markets

European instruments: Council Regulation (EC) No 116/2009 on the export of cultural goods, arts. 1 and 2 and Annex I. Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 1081/2012.
National instruments: Code du patrimoine, arts. L111-4, L111-6 and R111-1 to R111-12. Export Control Act 2002 (2002 c. 28) and the Export of Objects of Cultural Interest (Control) Order 2003, S.I. 2003/2759. Artist’s Resale Right Regulations 2006, S.I. 2006/346. Topstukkendecreet and the Brussels ordinance of 25 April 2019.
Customs instruments: Convention on Temporary Admission, Istanbul, 26 June 1990, body and Annexes A, B.1 and B.5. Common Customs Law of the GCC States, arts. 25 to 94, and its Rules of Implementation.
A private wording: One published insurer’s fine art policy document.

Are gallery prices negotiable

European Union: Directive 98/6/EC on consumer protection in the indication of prices, art. 6a, as inserted by Directive (EU) 2019/2161.
France: Code de la consommation, arts. L. 112-1, L. 112-1-1 and L. 112-2.
United Kingdom: Digital Markets, Competition and Consumers Act 2024 (2024 c. 13), Part 4, Chapter 1, ss. 225, 226, 227, 229 and 230, and Sch. 20, paras. 5, 6, 7 and 25.
Fair rulebooks: Exhibition Regulations for Art Basel show in Basel, 18 to 21 June 2020, cll. 18.2, 18.3 and 21.7. Exhibition Regulations, Art Basel Miami Beach, 8 to 10 December 2023, cl. 20.5. TEFAF published terms and conditions and published vetting pages.
Trade and professional codes: CINOA Code of Ethics, updated 5 July 2024. BIID Code of Conduct, 1 April 2026. Architects Registration Board, The Architects Code 2025, in force 1 September 2025.

Acquisition policy

Accreditation Scheme for Museums and Galleries in the United Kingdom, Accreditation Standard, November 2018, requirement 4.2
ICOM Code of Ethics for Museums, paras. 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3

Artist’s resale right

Directive 2001/84/EC on the resale right for the benefit of the author of an original work of art, arts. 1(1) and 2
Artist’s Resale Right Regulations 2006, S.I. 2006/346, regs. 7 and 8
Directive 2001/84/EC, arts. 1(2) and 1(4); S.I. 2006/346, reg. 12(3); Code de la propriété intellectuelle, art. L122-8
Directive 2001/84/EC, arts. 3 and 4
S.I. 2006/346, regs. 12(3)(b), 12(4) and Sch. 1; Code de la propriété intellectuelle, art. L122-8

Catalogue raisonné

Décret n° 81-255 du 3 mars 1981, arts. 1 to 11
Décret n° 81-255, arts. 1 and 3

Certificate of authenticity

Décret n° 81-255 du 3 mars 1981 sur la répression des fraudes en matière de transactions d’œuvres d’art et d’objets de collection, arts. 1 and 3
Décret n° 81-255, arts. 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8
Code de commerce, art. L. 321-17

Due diligence

Money Laundering, Terrorist Financing and Transfer of Funds (Information on the Payer) Regulations 2017, S.I. 2017/692, reg. 14
S.I. 2017/692, regs. 27(7C) and 28
Regulation (EU) 2024/1624, arts. 3(3)(i) and (j) and 2(1)(56), which defines cultural goods by reference to Annex I to Council Regulation (EC) No 116/2009
Regulation (EU) 2024/1624, arts. 19(1), 20(1) and 90
Dealing in Cultural Objects (Offences) Act 2003, ss. 1, 2 and 3

Free port

Regulation (EU) No 952/2013, arts. 243 and 244
Customs and Excise Management Act 1979, s. 100A
Regulation (EU) No 952/2013, arts. 247(1) and 249; Council Directive 2006/112/EC, arts. 61 and 156
Council Regulation (EC) No 116/2009, art. 2(1); Regulation (EU) No 952/2013, arts. 243(1) and 248(1)
S.I. 2017/692, reg. 14; Regulation (EU) 2024/1624, art. 3(3)(j)

Provenance

International Council of Museums, ICOM Code of Ethics for Museums, glossary and arts. 2.2 and 2.3. The Code was revised by the 21st General Assembly at Seoul on 8 October 2004; ICOM edition of 2017
Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, adopted at Paris 14 November 1970, in force 24 April 1972, arts. 3 and 7
International Council of Museums, Object ID documentation standard
Convention of 14 November 1970, art. 3

How an advisor is paid

Christie’s, published buyer’s premium schedule and conditions of sale
Sotheby’s, published buyer’s premium schedule and conditions of business
Christie’s, published financial information

Is it genuine

Acts: Consumer Rights Act 2015 (2015 c. 15), ss. 11 and 17. Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (1988 c. 48), ss. 12, 77, 78, 86, 93 and 95. Value Added Tax Act 1994 (1994 c. 23), s. 21.
Statutory instruments: The Value Added Tax Regulations 1995, S.I. 1995/2518, reg. 14.
Codes, France: Code de la propriété intellectuelle, art. L. 113-1. Code de commerce, art. L. 321-17. Code général des impôts, annexe III, art. 98 A, II to IV, with BOFiP, BOI-TVA-SECT-90-40, § 10. Décret n° 81-255 du 3 mars 1981, arts. 1 to 11.
Standards: International Council of Museums, ICOM Code of Ethics for Museums, glossary and arts. 2.2 and 2.3. International Council of Museums, Object ID documentation standard.
Fair rulebooks: Exhibition Regulations for the Art Basel show in Basel, 18 to 21 June 2020, cl. 21.7. Exhibition Regulations, Art Basel Miami Beach, 8 to 10 December 2023, cl. 20.5. TEFAF published terms and conditions and published vetting pages.

Testing a gallery price

United Kingdom, statute: Inheritance Tax Act 1984 (1984 c. 51), s. 160. Taxation of Chargeable Gains Act 1992 (1992 c. 12), s. 272(1) and (2). Both on legislation.gov.uk.
United Kingdom, published guidance: HM Revenue and Customs, Inheritance Tax Manual, IHTM21011, IHTM21012 and IHTM21041, on gov.uk. Form IHT407, Household and personal goods, reference HMRC 07/18, on gov.uk.
United States: Internal Revenue Service, Publication 561, Determining the Value of Donated Property (Rev. December 2025). Publication 5392, The Art Advisory Panel of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, Annual Summary Report for Fiscal Year 2023 (Rev. 6-2024). Internal Revenue Manual 4.48.2, Valuation Assistance for Cases Involving Works of Art. All on irs.gov.
Standards bodies: International Valuation Standards Council, the published International Valuation Standards page. Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, the valuation standards page naming RICS Valuation, Global Standards effective 31 January 2025.
Auction houses: Sotheby’s published results index.

Insuring a work abroad

United Arab Emirates: Federal Decree-Law No. (6) of 2025 Regarding the Central Bank, Regulation of Financial Institutions and Activities, and Insurance Business, arts. (2), (60), (61), (82), (170), (184) and (185). Federal Decree-Law No. (48) of 2023 Regulating Insurance Activities, arts. (2), (10), (12) and (105), marked Repealed. Both in the CBUAE Rulebook published by the Central Bank of the United Arab Emirates.
United Kingdom: Financial Conduct Authority, Information for general insurers and intermediaries in the UK, last updated 5 December 2025.
Insurer: Ecclesiastical Insurance Office plc, Fine Art Insurance policy document, in the version published by the insurer, comprising General information, General definitions, General conditions and Section 1.

Insuring across two countries

ICOM: International Council of Museums, Object ID, in the standards and guidelines published by ICOM.
Collections Trust: Spectrum: Primary procedures. The Spectrum standards for Inventory, Cataloguing, Location and movement control, Valuation and Insurance and indemnity, each dated 2022, with Collections Trust as author and publisher. Access to these resources is subject to the Spectrum licence.
ISO: ISO 21127:2023, Information and documentation, A reference ontology for the interchange of cultural heritage information, published 11 October 2023, ISO/TC 46/SC 4.
Insurer: Ecclesiastical Insurance Office plc, Fine Art Insurance policy document, in the version published by the insurer, comprising General definitions, Insuring clause, General exclusions, General conditions, Claims conditions and Sections 1 and 2.

Protected species materials

Treaty: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, opened for signature at Washington on 3 March 1973, Articles II, III, IV, V and VII, in United Nations Treaty Series vol. 993, No. 14537, registered by Switzerland on 13 January 1976.
Union regulations: Council Regulation (EC) No 338/97 of 9 December 1996 on the protection of species of wild fauna and flora by regulating trade therein, Official Journal L 61, 3.3.1997, Articles 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 22 and the Annexes, consolidated version applicable from 29 June 2026. Commission Regulation (EC) No 865/2006 of 4 May 2006, Official Journal L 166, 19.6.2006, Articles 48, 57, 58, 58a, 61 and 62, consolidated version applicable from 18 February 2025, as amended by Commission Regulation (EU) 2015/870 and Commission Regulation (EU) 2021/2280.
Assimilated law in Great Britain: Council Regulation (EC) No 338/97 and Commission Regulation (EC) No 865/2006 as published on legislation.gov.uk.
Acts: Ivory Act 2018 (2018 c. 30), sections 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 37 and 38.
Statutory instruments: The Control of Trade in Endangered Species Regulations 2018, S.I. 2018/703, regulations 4 and 12 and Schedule 1. The Environment and Wildlife (Miscellaneous Amendments etc.) (EU Exit) Regulations 2020, S.I. 2020/1395. The Ivory Act 2018 (Meaning of “Ivory” and Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations 2025, S.I. 2025/9. The Control of Trade in Endangered Species (Amendment and Revocation) Regulations 2026, S.I. 2026/627.
Guidance: Animal and Plant Health Agency and Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, CITES imports and exports, guidance published on GOV.UK.

Starting a collection

Acts and instruments: Consumer Rights Act 2015 (2015 c. 15), ss. 11 and 17. Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (1988 c. 48), s. 11. Export Control Act 2002 (2002 c. 28) and the Export of Objects of Cultural Interest (Control) Order 2003, S.I. 2003/2759. Artist’s Resale Right Regulations 2006, S.I. 2006/346. Code général des impôts, art. 278-0 bis. Code du patrimoine, arts. L111-4 and R111-1 to R111-9. Code de la propriété intellectuelle, arts. L. 111-1 and L. 111-3. Use of Cash (Restriction) Regulations of Malta, S.L. 373.04. Council Regulation (EC) No 116/2009 and Implementing Regulation (EU) No 1081/2012. Convention on Temporary Admission, Istanbul, 26 June 1990. Common Customs Law of the GCC States.

Free zone or designated zone

Dubai: Law No. (3) of 2020 Concerning the Dubai Multi Commodities Centre, arts. 3, 17, 18, 21 and 33, in the English text published on the Dubai legislation portal of the Government of Dubai.
Gulf Cooperation Council: Common Customs Law of the GCC States, Rules of Implementation and Explanatory Notes, January 2003, published by the Secretariat General: arts. 15, 77 to 88. The first page states that the English text is to be used for reference only and that the Arabic text is the authentic and binding version.
United Arab Emirates, federal: Ministry of Finance, The Executive Regulation of the Federal Decree-Law No. 8 of 2017 on Value Added Tax, Cabinet Decision No. 52 of 2017 with the amendments made by Cabinet Decisions No. 46 of 2020, 24 of 2021, 88 of 2021, 99 of 2022, 100 of 2024 and 100 of 2025, arts. 47 and 51. Federal Authority for Identity, Citizenship, Customs and Port Security, Customs Union for GCC States.
DMCC: About us and Compliance and regulations, pages published by DMCC.

UK export and resale right

Acts: Export Control Act 2002 (2002 c. 28), ss. 9 and 10. Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, s. 12(2).
Statutory instruments: The Export of Objects of Cultural Interest (Control) Order 2003, S.I. 2003/2759, art. 2 and Sch. 1. The Artist’s Resale Right Regulations 2006, S.I. 2006/346, regs. 3, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14 and Sch. 1. The Design Right, Artist’s Resale Right and Copyright (Amendment) Regulations 2023, S.I. 2023/1285, regs. 3 and 4.
Guidance: Department for Culture, Media and Sport, Export Controls on Objects of Cultural Interest: Statutory Guidance on the Criteria to be Taken into Consideration when Making a Decision about whether or not to Grant an Export Licence, March 2015.
Reports to Parliament: Export of Objects of Cultural Interest 2022-23, report of the Secretary of State presented to Parliament under section 10(1)(a) of the Export Control Act 2002, July 2023.

Money laundering and art

Acts: Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 (2002 c. 29), Part 7, sections 327, 328, 329, 330, 334, 335, 338 and 340, and Schedule 9 paragraph 1. Value Added Tax Act 1994, section 21(5) and (6) to (6B).
Statutory instruments: The Money Laundering, Terrorist Financing and Transfer of Funds (Information on the Payer) Regulations 2017, S.I. 2017/692, regulations 3, 7, 8, 14, 27, 28, 31, 54, 55 and 56. The Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing (Amendment) Regulations 2019, S.I. 2019/1511. The Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing (Amendment) (EU Exit) Regulations 2020, S.I. 2020/991. The Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations 2022, S.I. 2022/860. The Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing (Amendment) Regulations 2026, S.I. 2026/621, regulations 1, 3, 9, 14 and 39.
Union regulations: Regulation (EU) 2024/1624 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 31 May 2024 on the prevention of the use of the financial system for the purposes of money laundering or terrorist financing, Articles 2, 3, 19 and 80 and Annex IV. Council Regulation (EC) No 116/2009 of 18 December 2008 on the export of cultural goods, Annex I.

Before you pay

Acts: Consumer Rights Act 2015 (2015 c. 15), ss. 11 and 17. Dealing in Cultural Objects (Offences) Act 2003 (2003 c. 27), ss. 1 and 2. Value Added Tax Act 1994 (1994 c. 23), ss. 21 and 50A. Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (1988 c. 48), s. 11.
Statutory instruments: The Value Added Tax Regulations 1995, S.I. 1995/2518, reg. 14. The Money Laundering, Terrorist Financing and Transfer of Funds (Information on the Payer) Regulations 2017, S.I. 2017/692, reg. 14. The Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation and Additional Charges) Regulations 2013, S.I. 2013/3134, regs. 28, 29 and 30.
European instruments: Regulation (EU) 2019/880 on the introduction and the import of cultural goods, arts. 3, 4 and 5 and the Annex. Council Directive 2006/112/EC on the common system of value added tax, art. 325.
Fair rulebooks: Exhibition Regulations for Art Basel show in Basel, 18 to 21 June 2020, cll. 18.3 and 21.7. Exhibition Regulations, Art Basel Miami Beach, 8 to 10 December 2023, cl. 20.5. TEFAF published terms and conditions and published vetting pages.

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Art in a listed building

Malta statute: Cultural Heritage Act, Chapter 445 of the Laws of Malta, arts. 2, 7, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63 and 70, and the Schedule. Development Planning Act, Chapter 552, arts. 57, 58 and 70. Consolidated texts published by the Government of Malta on legislation.mt.
Malta guidance: Superintendence of Cultural Heritage: Heritage Planning Consultation; Built Heritage Restoration Monitoring, including the General Parameters for a Restoration Method Statement; Monitoring of Movable Heritage Conservation; Import, Export or Movement of Cultural Heritage Items; National Inventory and Scheduling.

Budgeting a residence programme

Acts, codes and a decision: Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (1988 c. 48), s. 11. Consumer Rights Act 2015 (2015 c. 15), ss. 11, 13, 19 to 24, 49 and 50. Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982 (1982 c. 29), ss. 3, 4 and 13. Bribery Act 2010 (2010 c. 23), ss. 1 to 3. Code de la propriété intellectuelle, arts. L. 111-1, L. 111-3, L. 121-1 and L. 122-4. Code civil, arts. 1217 to 1231-1. BIID Code of Conduct, 1 April 2026. RIBA Code of Practice, 1 April 2021. FHR European Ventures LLP v Cedar Capital Partners LLC [2014] UKSC 45.

Cash limit in Malta

Subsidiary legislation: Use of Cash (Restriction) Regulations, S.L. 373.04, Legal Notice 81 of 2021 as amended by Legal Notice 421 of 2021, in force 9 March 2021; regs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13. Prevention of Money Laundering and Funding of Terrorism Regulations, S.L. 373.01, Legal Notice 372 of 2017 as amended, reg. 2(1).
Acts: Prevention of Money Laundering Act, Cap. 373, Act XIX of 1994 as amended, arts. 12(1) and 16(1)(m).
European Union: Regulation (EU) 2024/1624 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 31 May 2024 on the prevention of the use of the financial system for the purposes of money laundering or terrorist financing, arts. 80 and 90.
The authority’s own account: Financial Intelligence Analysis Unit, The Use of Cash (Restriction) Regulations, the Unit’s published page on the instrument it monitors.

Scheduled property

Development Planning Act, Cap. 552, arts. 57(1), 57(6), consolidated text on legislation.mt
Cap. 552, art. 57(6); Cultural Heritage Act, Cap. 445, arts. 2, 56, 59, consolidated texts on legislation.mt

Trade discount and designers

Professional codes: BIID Code of Conduct, 1 April 2026, Principles 2, 3, 5 and 9. Architects Registration Board, The Architects Code 2025, Standards 1 and 4, in force 1 September 2025. RIBA Code of Practice, 1 April 2021, cll. 3.1, 3.2 and 6.1 to 6.3 with their guidance notes.
Trade codes: CINOA Code of Ethics, updated 5 July 2024.
Acts: Bribery Act 2010 (2010 c. 23), ss. 1, 2 and 3. Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (1988 c. 48), s. 11.
Reported decisions: FHR European Ventures LLP v Cedar Capital Partners LLC [2014] UKSC 45, paras. 5, 33, 46 and 50.
Fair rulebooks: Exhibition Regulations, Art Basel Miami Beach, 8 to 10 December 2023, cl. 20.5. Exhibition Regulations for Art Basel show in Basel, 18 to 21 June 2020. TEFAF published terms and conditions and published vetting pages.

Members’ club strategy

Acts and codes: Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (1988 c. 48), s. 11. Consumer Rights Act 2015 (2015 c. 15), ss. 11, 13, 19 to 24, 49 and 50. Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982 (1982 c. 29), ss. 3, 4 and 13. Code de la propriété intellectuelle, arts. L. 111-1, L. 111-3, L. 121-1 and L. 122-4. Code civil, arts. 1217 to 1231-1. Cultural Heritage Act of Malta, Cap. 445, arts. 7(5)(g), 56, 58 and 59. Development Planning Act of Malta, Cap. 552, arts. 57, 58 and 70. Use of Cash (Restriction) Regulations of Malta, S.L. 373.04.

When architecture becomes the product

Accounts and registers: Charity Commission for England and Wales, register entry for The Landmark Trust (243312), year to 31 December 2024. National Trust, Annual Report 2024–2025, pages 14 and 32.
Company announcements: LVMH and Belmond, joint announcement of 14 December 2018. InterContinental Hotels Group, news release of 13 February 2019.
Government and statute: Entreprendre Service Public, “Ouvrir une chambre d’hôtes”, verified 21 May 2026. Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, private lodging portal. Deregulation Act 2015 explanatory notes, amending the Greater London Council (General Powers) Act 1973, with City of London planning guidance.
Press: RIBA Journal, 1 October 2012. Skift, 1 May 2024. Reporting of 5 May 2026 on the National Trust’s April 2026 confirmation.

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